Nanoscale nickel phosphide catalysts for hydrotreatment

ABSTRACT

This present disclosure is directed to methods for the preparation of a hydrotreatment catalyst, such as nanoscale nickel phosphide (i.e., Ni 2 P) particles supported on high-surface area metal oxides (e.g., silica, alumina, amorphous silica-alumina), in a manner that is compatible with conditions employed in commercial hydrotreating units. The catalyst synthesis includes impregnation, drying, and in situ reduction, and can provide highly active catalysts for the removal of S and N impurities from crude oil fractions.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 62/151,890, filed Apr. 23, 2015, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

The removal of sulfur and nitrogen impurities from fossil fuel feedstocks is a critical processing step in producing ultralow sulfur transportation fuels. The removal of organonitrogen compounds is necessary to achieve the ultralow sulfur levels since these compounds inhibit sulfur removal. In addition, organosulfur and organonitrogen compounds poison catalysts used in down-stream refinery processes such as hydrocracking, catalytic cracking and reforming. While sulfided Co—Mo/Al₂O₃ and Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ hydrotreatment catalysts are the workhorses of commercial hydrotreating processes, a considerable research effort is ongoing to assess the potential of alternate catalytic materials for hydrotreatment, such as metal phosphides for the hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) and hydrodesulfurization (HDS) reactions. A number of laboratories have investigated the HDS properties of the monometallic phosphides of the first-row transition metals (e.g., Ni₂P), of MoP (molybdenum phosphide), and WP (tungsten phosphide) on supports such as silica, as well as the HDS properties of bimetallic phosphide materials. Among the monometallic phosphides, Ni₂P has generally been identified as being the most active hydrotreatment catalyst for HDS of thiophene, dibenzothiophene (DBT) and 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene (4,6-DMDBT). Some bimetallic phosphide catalysts, Ni₂P containing a second first-row metal (e.g., Fe_(0.03)Ni_(1.97)P/SiO₂), for example, have exhibited HDS activities that are higher than those of the binary phosphides of the same metals, as well as different product selectivities.

There is a need for Ni₂P hydrotreatment catalysts having superior HDS and HDN activities, as well as having improved selectivity for certain hydrotreatment products compared to existing hydrotreatment catalysts. For example, Ni₂P hydrotreatment catalysts having higher HDS and HDN activities relative to conventional Co-Mo/Al₂O₃ and Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ sulfide catalysts are desirable. There is also a need for Ni₂P hydrotreatment catalysts that can be readily and easily synthesized at low temperatures (T 400° C.). The present disclosure seeks to fulfill these needs and provides further related advantages.

SUMMARY

This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This summary is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter.

In one aspect, the present disclosure features a method of preparing a hydrotreatment catalyst including nanoscale Ni₂P particles on a support. The method includes the steps of

(a) providing an impregnation solution comprising nickel hydroxide in hypophosphorous acid;

(b) impregnating the support with the impregnation solution;

(c) drying the impregnation solution to provide Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ on the support; and

(d) reducing the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ on the support in a hydrogen environment, a sulfiding environment or an inert gas environment and at a temperature of 300-500° C. to provide a hydrotreatment catalyst comprising nanoscale Ni₂P particles on the support.

In another aspect, the present disclosure features a method of hydrotreating a petroleum feedstock. The method includes hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock in a reactor using a hydrotreatment catalyst prepared according to the methods described herein.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure features a hydrotreatment catalyst including nanoscale Ni₂P particles on a support, prepared according to the methods described herein.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of this disclosure will become more readily appreciated as the same become better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a synthesis of an embodiment of a metal oxide-supported Ni₂P catalyst of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 shows X-ray diffraction patterns for embodiments of 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors.

FIG. 3A shows X-ray diffraction patterns for embodiments of 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors.

FIG. 3B shows X-ray diffraction patterns for embodiments of 25 wt % Ni₂P/amorphous silica-alumina (ASA) catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors.

FIG. 4A is a medium-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of an embodiment of a 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor. The average Ni₂P particle size was determined to be 3.2±0.4 nm.

FIG. 4B is a high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of the 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst shown in FIG. 4A. The lattice fringe spacing (0.20 nm) indicates the presence of Ni₂P particles on the SiO₂ support.

FIG. 5A is a medium-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of an embodiment of a 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor. The average Ni₂P particle size was determined to be 3.9±0.6 nm.

FIG. 5B is a high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of the 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst shown in FIG. 5A. The lattice fringe spacing (0.19 nm) indicates the presence of Ni₂P particles on the Al₂O₃ support.

FIG. 6A is a medium-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of a 25 wt % Ni₂P/ASA catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor. The average Ni₂P particle size was determined to be 3.3±0.5 nm.

FIG. 6B is a high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of the 25 wt % Ni₂P/ASA catalyst shown in FIG. 6A. The lattice fringe spacing (0.19 nm) indicates the presence of Ni₂P particles on the ASA support.

FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of a flow reactor system and test conditions for HDN and HDS evaluations of embodiments of phosphate-based and hypophosphite-based Ni₂P catalysts.

FIG. 8 is a graph showing carbazole HDN conversion vs. temperature for embodiments of Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts. The HDN was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 9A is a graph showing carbazole HDN conversion vs. temperature for embodiments of 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts. The HDN was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 9B is a graph showing carbazole HDN conversion vs. temperature for embodiments of 25 wt % Ni₂P/ASA catalysts. The HDN was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 10 is a graph showing carbazole HDN activities for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst and embodiments of Ni₂P catalysts prepared by in situ reduction of hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 11 is a graph showing benzothiophene HDS activities for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst and embodiments of Ni₂P catalysts prepared by in situ reduction of hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDS was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 12A is a schematic diagram of the conditions used for in situ preparation of Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts from hypophosphite-based precursors.

FIG. 12 B is a graph showing carbazole HDN activities for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst and embodiments of 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared by in situ reduction of hypophosphite-based precursors in H₂ or H₂S/H₂. The HDN was carried out using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 12C shows X-ray diffraction patterns for embodiments of 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts after catalytic testing in the mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 13A is a graph showing carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity was tested using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 13B is a table listing properties of the Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors of FIG. 13A.

FIG. 14A is a graph showing carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity was tested using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 14B is a table listing properties of the Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors of FIG. 14A.

FIG. 15A is a graph showing carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/ASA catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity was tested using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

FIG. 15B a table listing properties of the Ni₂P/ASA catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors of FIG. 15A.

FIG. 16 is a graph showing carbazole HDN turnover frequencies (T=325° C.) of Ni₂P on SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and ASA supports for catalysts prepared in situ and ex situ using hypophosphite-based precursors, as well as from phosphate-based precursors. The turnover frequencies were determined using CO chemisorption capacities. Also shown is the carbazole HDN turnover frequency for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst (4 wt % NiO, 19.5 wt % MoO₃, 8 wt % P₂O₅), for which the low temperature O₂ chemisorption capacity was used to calculate the turnover frequency.

FIG. 17A is a schematic representation of an embodiment of the preparation steps for phosphorus (P-) (or boron (B-)) modified Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts.

FIG. 17B shows X-ray diffraction patterns for hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different P-loadings on an Al₂O₃ support (0-5 wt % P).

FIG. 17C shows X-ray diffraction patterns for phosphate-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different P-loadings on an Al₂O₃ support (0-5 wt % P).

FIG. 18A shows X-ray diffraction patterns for hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different B-loadings on the Al₂O₃ support (0-2 wt % B).

FIG. 18B shows XRD patterns for phosphate-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different B-loadings on the Al₂O₃ support (0-2 wt % B).

FIG. 19A is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities vs. temperature for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/1P-Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin.

FIG. 19B is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities vs. temperature for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/0.8B-Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin.

FIG. 20A is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities (T=300° C.) for Ni₂P/xP—Al₂O₃ catalysts (0×5 wt % P) prepared from hypophosphite- and phosphate-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin.

FIG. 20B is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities (T=300° C.) for Ni₂P/xB—Al₂O₃ catalysts (0×2 wt % B) prepared from hypophosphite- and phosphate-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This present disclosure is directed to methods for the preparation of a hydrotreatment catalyst, such as nanoscale nickel phosphide (i.e., Ni₂P) particles supported on high-surface area metal oxides (e.g., silica, alumina, amorphous silica-alumina, titania, zirconia), in a manner that is compatible with conditions employed in commercial hydrotreating units. The catalyst synthesis includes impregnation, drying, and in situ reduction, and can provide highly active catalysts for the removal of S and N impurities from crude oil fractions.

Referring to FIG. 1, the preparation of nanoscale Ni₂P (nickel phosphide) particles on a support includes an impregnation step, a drying step, and a reduction step. The impregnation step includes dissolving a metal hydroxide, such as nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂), in hypophosphorous acid (H₃PO₂) to provide a Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution. In some embodiments, the hypophosphorous acid is an aqueous solution, such as a 50 wt % aqueous solution (e.g., 25-75 wt % H₃PO₂(aq)). The concentration of the hypophosphorous acid solution is determined by the stoichiometry of the reaction between nickel hydroxide and hypophosphorous acid. In some embodiments, the concentration of Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution can be adjusted by diluting with or removal of water.

In some embodiments, the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution has a phosphorus-to-nickel mole ratio (P/Ni) of 2.0, of 1.0 to 2.0, or greater than 2. In some embodiments, the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution has a phosphorus-to-nickel mole ratio of 1.0 to 2.0. The phosphorus-to-nickel ratio can be adjusted to lower or higher values by adding a metal salt (e.g., Ni(NO₃)₂, NiCl₂, NiSO₄, NiCO₃) or more H₃PO₂, respectively. The Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution can be maintained at a temperature of 20° C. or more (e.g., 40° C. or more, 50° C. or more, 60° C. or more, or 70° C. or more) and/or 75° C. or less (e.g., 70° C. or less, 60° C. or less, 50° C. or less, or 40° C. or less), to decrease the likelihood or prevent the precipitation of dissolved materials. In some embodiments, the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution is maintained at a temperature of 70° C. or less.

The Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnation solution can be applied (e.g., impregnated) onto a high surface area metal oxide support, and the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ solution impregnated support can be dried to provide Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnated on the support using either the incipient wetness or equilibrium adsorption method. In some embodiments, drying the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ solution-impregnated support can include heating the impregnated support, for example, to a temperature of 70° C. (e.g., 60° C., 50° C., or 40° C.). For example, heating the impregnated support can be to a temperature of 40° C. or more (e.g., 50° C. or more, 60° C. or more) and/or 70° C. or less (e.g., 60° C. or less, 50° C. or less). The dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂-impregnated support (i.e., the catalyst precursor) can have 20 wt % or less of water.

In some embodiments, the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂-impregnated support is then heated and reduced in a reducing atmosphere to provide nanoscale Ni₂P particles on the support. During the heating and reduction step, the nickel hypophosphite on the support is converted to nanoscale Ni₂P particles. The nanoscale Ni₂P particles can be relatively phase pure. As used herein, a “phase pure” nanoscale Ni₂P particle denotes that the only phase identified by X-ray diffraction or transmission electron microscopy is Ni₂P. The heating and reduction can include loading the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂-impregnated support into a reactor system, purging the reactor system at room temperature using an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen or argon), and then heating the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnated support in flowing hydrogen (H₂) gas, or a sulfiding gas, to an elevated temperature. The sulfiding gas can include a sulfiding agent, such as a flowing gaseous mixture of hydrogen sulfide in hydrogen (e.g., 3-10 mol % H₂S/H₂).

In some embodiments, during the heating and reducing step, the hydrogen gas or sulfiding gas is flowed at a rate of 50 mL/min or more (e.g., 60 mL/min or more, or 70 mL/min or more) and/or 80 mL/min or less (e.g., 70 mL/min or less, or 60 mL/min or less). In some embodiments, the gas is flowed at a rate of 50 mL/min, 60 mL/min, 70 mL/min, or 80 mL/min. In some embodiments, the gas is flowed at a rate of 60 mL/min.

In some embodiments, during the heating and reducing step, the elevated temperature for the reduction reaction is 300° C. or more (e.g., 350° C. or more, 400° C. or more, or 450° C. or more) and/or 500° C. or less (e.g., 450° C. or less, 400° C. or less, or 350° C. or less). For example, the elevated temperature for the reduction is 300° C. to 500 ° C. (e.g., 300° C. to 450° C., 300° C. to 400° C., 350° C. to 500° C., 350° C. to 450° C., or 400° C. to 500° C.). In some embodiments, the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂-impregnated support is heated and reduced for a duration of about 30 minutes or more (e.g., 1 hour or more, 2 hours or more, 3 hours or more) and/or 4 hours or less (e.g., 3 hours or less, 2 hours or less, or 1 hour or less). For example, the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ impregnated support can be heated and reduced for 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, or 4 hours. In certain embodiments, the dried Ni(H₂PO₂)₂-impregnated support is heated and reduced for 2 hours.

The synthetic procedure of the present disclosure presents numerous advantages. For example, the nanoscale Ni₂P particles produced using the synthetic procedure of the present disclosure do not need to be washed with water, since the synthesis does not produce salts that must be removed. For example, when a hydrogen atmosphere is used for the reduction step, the reaction proceeds as follows:

12 Ni(H₂PO₂)₂+35 H₂→6 Ni₂P+14 PH₃+32 H₂O+4 H₃PO₄.   (Eq. 1)

As can be seen from Equation 1, the reaction does not produce any salt by-products. The synthesis of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles is relatively easy, and can be carried out directly in a hydrotreatment reactor (i.e., in situ preparation) at low temperatures (T≤400° C.) and without the need of a washing step to remove salt by-products, using a reducing agent (e.g., H₂ or H₂S/H₂).

The synthetic procedure of the present disclosure provides nanoscale Ni₂P particles having desirable physical and catalytic properties, as will be detailed infra.

Support

The support for the nanoscale Ni₂P particles can include a variety of metal oxides, such as alumina (Al₂O₃), silica (SiO₂), or amorphous silica-alumina (ASA). In some embodiments, the support can have Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface areas of 25 m²/g or more (e.g., 50 m²/g or more, 100 m²/g or more, 200 m²/g or more, 300 m²/g or more, or 400 m²/g or more) and/or 500 m²/g or less (e.g., 400 m²/g or less, 300 m²/g or less, 200 m²/g or less, 100 m²/g or less, or 50 m²/g or less). In some embodiments, the support can have BET surface areas of 500 m²/g or more.

In some embodiments, the support can have pore volumes of 0.1 cm³/g or more (e.g., 0.3 cm³/g or more, or 0.7 cm³/g or more) and/or 1.0 cm³/g or less (e.g., 0.7 cm³/g or less, or 0.3 cm³/g or less). In some embodiments, the support can have average Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) pore sizes of 1 nm or more (e.g., 5 nm or more, 15 nm or more, 25 nm or more) and/or 30 nm or less (e.g., 25 nm or less, 15 nm or less, or 5 nm or less). In some embodiments, the support can have BJH pore sizes of 30 nm or more.

In some embodiments, the metal oxide support includes a surface layer of P₂O₅, B₂O₃, or both. The surface layer can have an average thickness of 0.1 nm or more (e.g., 0.5 nm or more, 1 nm or more, 2 nm or more, 3 nm or more, or 4 nm or more) and/or 5 nm or less (e.g., 4 nm or less, 3 nm or less, 2 nm or less, 1 nm or less, or 0.5 nm or less).

In some embodiments, the surface layer of the support has an average thickness of 5 nm or less (e.g., 4 nm or less, 3 nm or less, 2 nm or less, or 1 nm or less). In some embodiments, the average thickness of the surface layer is measured using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In some embodiments, the surface layer is continuous. In certain embodiments, the surface layer is non-continuous. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the surface layer is associated to the bulk of the support via a combination of covalent and ionic bonds.

The surface layer of P₂O₅, B₂O₃, or both, on the metal oxide support can be deposited onto the support prior to impregnating the support with Ni(H₂PO₂)₂. For example, to prepare a B₂O₃ and/or P₂O₅ surface layer on the support (e.g., silica, alumina, or amorphous silica-alumina), selected amounts of boron and/or phosphorus-containing compounds such as H₃B0₃, H₃PO₄, and/or an ammonium phosphate salt such as NH₄H₂PO₄ and/or (NH₄)₂HPO₄, and water can be impregnated onto the support until incipient wetness is achieved. After impregnation using the boron and/or phosphorus compounds, the impregnated support can be dried, then calcined to provide a metal oxide support having a P₂O₅ and/or B₂O₃ surface layer.

Drying of the boron- or phosphorus-impregnated support can occur at 70° C. or more (e.g., 80° C. or more, 100° C. or more, or 110° C. or more) and/or 120° C. or less (e.g., 110° C. or less, 100° C. or less, 80° C. or less), for a duration of 24 hours or more (e.g., 36 hours or more, 48 hours or more, or 60 hours or more) and/or 72 hours or less (e.g., 60 hours or less, 48 hours or less, or 36 hours or less). Calcining the dried impregnated support can be conducted in an oxygen-containing atmosphere (e.g., air) or pure oxygen at a temperature of from 400° C. or more (e.g., 425° C. or more, or 450° C. or more) and/or 500° C. or less (e.g., 450° C. or less, or 425° C. or less), for a duration of 2 hours or more (e.g., 3 hours or more, or 4 hours or more) and/or 5 hours or less (e.g., 4 hours or less, or 3 hours or less).

The supports of the present disclosure can be characterized using X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, BET surface area, and BJH pore size measurements.

Catalyst Characteristics

In some embodiments, the nanoscale Ni₂P particles on the support synthesized by the methods of the present disclosure have a relatively uniform diameter. As used herein, “uniform diameter” refers to a diameter that does not vary by more than 20% compared to an average diameter of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles. In some embodiments, the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are in the form of a plurality of Ni₂P crystallites on a surface of the support, as identified and characterized using X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The crystallites can have an average diameter of 3 nm or more (e.g., 5 nm or more, or 10 nm or more) and/or 15 nm or less (e.g., 10 nm or less, or 5 nm or less). In some embodiments, the crystallites have an average diameter of 3 nm to 15 nm. In certain embodiments, the crystallites have an average diameter of 3 nm to 5 nm. In some embodiments, the crystallites have an average diameter of 3 nm or less (e.g., 3 nm, 2 nm, or 1 nm).

Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that smaller particles can result in increased dispersion of the active Ni₂P phase and thereby provide a higher active catalytic site density. It is also believed that uniformly-sized particles can allow for better control of catalytic activity and product selectivity.

The nanoscale Ni₂P particles can have a surface that is relative rich in phosphorus, compared to the bulk of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles. The composition of the surface and bulk of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles can be determined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (which can provide a quantitative measure of surface composition) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (which can provide a semi-quantitative measure of bulk composition), respectively. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a surface enrichment in phosphorus can provide increased stability to the Ni₂P catalyst (e.g., provide better resistance to sulfur poisoning or bulk sulfide formation) and provide desirable catalytic activity and selectivity properties.

In some embodiments, using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the composition of the surface of a nanoscale Ni₂P particle can be measured to a depth of 3 to 10 nm. In some embodiments, the surface composition of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles includes a mole ratio of P/Ni of 1.0 or more (e.g., 2.0 or more, 3.0 or more, 4.0 or more, 5.0 or more) and/or 6.0 or less (e.g., 5.0 or less, 4.0 or less, 3.0 or less, or 2.0 or less), as determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In some embodiments, the surface composition of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles includes a mole ratio of P/Ni of 1.0 to 6.0 (e.g., 1.0 to 5.0, 2.0 to 6.0, 2.0 to 5.0, or 2.0 to 4.0), as determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

In some embodiments, the nanoscale Ni₂P particles have a bulk portion, below the surface layer, the bulk portion has a mole ratio of P/Ni that is less than that of the surface layer. For example, the bulk portion can have a mole ratio of P/Ni of 0.5 or more (e.g., 1.0 or more, 2.0 or more, 3.0 or more, 4.0 or more) and/or 5.0 or less (e.g., 4.0 or less, 3.0 or less, 2.0 or less, or 1.0 or less), provided that the bulk portion P/Ni mole ratio is less than the P/Ni mole ratio of the surface layer of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles.

The nanoscale Ni₂P particles can be 5 wt % or more (e.g., 8 wt % or more, 10 wt % or more, or 15 wt % or more) and/or 25 wt % or less (e.g., 15 wt % or less, 10 wt % or less, or 8 wt % or less) of the total weight of the hydrotreatment catalyst, which includes the nanoscale Ni₂P particles and the support. In some embodiments, the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % (e.g., 5 wt % to 15 wt %, 5 wt % to 10 wt %, or 10 wt % to 25 wt %) of the total weight of the hydrotreatment catalyst. The Ni₂P wt % is calculated based on the amount of Ni and P that is impregnated into the support.

In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure has a BET surface area of 75 m²/g or more (e.g., 100 m²/g or more, 150 m²/g or more, or 200 m²/g or more) and/or 250 m²/g or less (e.g., 200 m²/g or less, 150 m²/g or less, or 100 m²/g or less). In certain embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure has a BET surface area of 75 m²/g to 250 m²/g (e.g., 100 m²/g to 200 m²/g or 150 m²/g to 250 m²/g). In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure has a BET surface area of 250 m²/g or more. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a higher BET surface area provides better catalytic properties.

Catalyst Evaluation—Hydrodenitrogenation

The catalytic activity of the hydrotreatment catalysts of the present disclosure can be evaluated using a hydrodenitrogenation test. As used herein, the hydrodenitrogenation test can include exposing the hydrotreatment catalyst to 1000 ppm carbazole and 3000 ppm benzothiophene in a 60 wt % decane and 39.55 wt % p-xylene solvent mixture at a rate of 5.4 mL/min, a H₂ flow rate of 50.0 mL/min, at a temperature of about 267 to 407° C., and at a pressure of 3.0 MPa.

In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure, i.e., the nanoscale Ni₂P particles on the support, have a carbazole hydrodenitrogenation turnover frequency of 0.0001/s or more (e.g., 0.0002/s or more, 0.0003/s or more, 0.0004/s or more, or 0.0005/s or more) and/or 0.0006/s or less (e.g., 0.0005/s or less, 0.0004/s or less, 0.0003/s or less, or 0.0002/s or less), at 350° C., over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when subjected to a hydrodenitrogenation test. For example, the hydrotreatment catalyst can have a carbazole hydrodenitrogenation turnover frequency of 0.0001/s to 0.0006/s (e.g., 0.0001/s to 0.0005/s, 0.0002/s to 0.0006/s, or 0.0002/s to 0.0004/s) at 350° C., over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when subjected to a hydrodenitrogenation test. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a high turnover frequency is indicative of highly active catalytic sites. A superior catalyst can have a high turnover frequency and/or a high chemisorption capacity, which is a measure of active sites.

In some embodiments, when the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % (e.g., 5 wt % to 20 wt %, 10 wt % to 20 wt %, 10 wt % to 15 wt %, 15 wt % to 20 wt %) of the hydrotreatment catalyst (i.e., 5 wt % to 25 wt % of the total combined weight of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles and the support), the hydrotreatment catalyst is capable of providing a carbazole hydrodenitrogenation conversion of 1% to 97% (e.g., 1% to 95%, 1% to 90%, 90% to 97%, 80% to 97%), at 350° C. over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when subjected to the hydrodenitrogenation test.

In some embodiments, when subjected to carbazole and benzothiophene (for example, in a hydrodenitrogenation test), the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure provides higher proportions of a cyclohexylbenzene product, compared to a sulfided nickel-molybdenum catalyst on alumina. For example, the hydrotreatment catalyst can provide 20% to 50% more of a cyclohexylbenzene product, compared to a sulfided nickel-molybdenum catalyst on alumina having a composition of 4 wt % NiO, 19.5 wt % MoO₃, and 8 wt % P₂O₅ (in its oxidic form).

Catalyst Evaluation—Hydrodesulfurization

In some embodiments, the catalytic activity of the hydrotreatment catalysts of the present disclosure can be evaluated using a hydrodesulfurization test. As used herein, the hydrodesulfurization test includes exposing the hydrotreatment catalyst to 1000 ppm of 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin, a H₂ flow rate of 50.0 mL/min, at a temperature of about 257 to 327° C., and at a pressure of 3.0 MPa.

In some embodiments, when the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % (e.g., 5 wt % to 20 wt %, 10 wt % to 20 wt %, 10 wt % to 15 wt %, 15 wt % to 20 wt %) of the hydrotreatment catalyst (i.e., 5 wt % to 25 wt % of the total combined weight of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles and the support), the hydrotreatment catalyst is capable of providing a 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene hydrodesulfurization conversion of 1% to 65% (e.g., 1% to 50%, 5% to 65%, 10% to 65%, or 50% to 65%), at 300° C., over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when subjected to a hydrodesulfurization test.

In some embodiments, nanoscale Ni₂P particles on an alumina support that has a P₂O₅ and/or B₂O₃ surface layer can have good 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene hydrodesulfurization conversion. In some embodiments, the alumina support can have a phosphorus content of from 1 wt % to 2 wt %. In certain embodiments, the alumina support can have a boron content of from 0.6 wt % to 1.2 wt %.

Hydrotreatment of Petroleum Feedstock

In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst of the present disclosure is used to hydrotreat a petroleum feedstock (e.g., a petroleum distillate). The hydrotreatment of petroleum feedstock can occur in a reactor using the hydrotreatment catalyst. The hydrotreatment can include one or more of hydrodenitrogenation (HDN), hydrodesulfurization (HDS), hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), hydrodemetallation (HDM), and hydrogenation (HYD).

In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst is prepared in situ in the reactor by reducing the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ that is impregnated on the support in a reducing atmosphere in the reactor, to provide nanoscale Ni₂P particles on the support, prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock. The reduction of the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ can include heating to a temperature below a temperature limit of the reactor, for example, heating to a temperature of 400° C. or less in the reactor. An in situ reduction of the hydrotreatment catalyst can be more convenient, cost-effective, and can provide greater amounts of active catalyst, when compared to a hydrotreatment catalyst prepared via an ex situ reduction. In some embodiments, the hydrotreatment catalyst is prepared ex situ (i.e., in a separate reactor different from the hydrotreatment reactor), and then placed in the reactor prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock. An ex situ preparation of the hydrotreatment can allow for the identification of an active catalytic phase, and can allow for quantification of the number of active sites and other properties.

As discussed above, the synthesis of the nanoscale Ni₂P particles does not require a step of washing the hydrotreatment catalyst prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock, since the synthesis does not produce salts that must be removed.

The following example is included for the purpose of illustrating, not limiting, the described embodiments. Example 1 describes a method for preparing nanoscale Ni₂P particles on supports and characterization of the resulting materials. Example 2 describes the synthesis and characterization of nanoscale Ni₂P particles on P₂O₅— or B₂O₃-modified supports.

EXAMPLES Example 1. Synthesis and Characterization of Ni₂P Supported on silica, alumina, or ASA

This example describes a method for synthesizing metal phosphide catalysts (e.g., Ni₂P) supported on high surface area metal oxides (e.g., silica, alumina, amorphous silica-alumina) in a manner that is compatible with conditions employed in commercial hydrotreating units. The catalyst synthesis includes impregnation, drying and in situ reduction (i.e., reduction within the hydrotreatment reactor) and yields highly active catalysts for the removal of S and N impurities from crude oil fractions.

Catalyst Preparation

A metal hydroxide, such as nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂), was dissolved in hypophosphorous acid (H₃PO₂, 50 wt % aqueous solution). The resulting solution had a phosphorus-to-nickel mole ratio (P/Ni) of 2.0, the solution was maintained at an elevated temperature 70° C.) to avoid precipitation of solid material. The solution was impregnated onto a high surface area metal oxide support and dried at 70° C. The dried catalyst precursor was loaded into the reactor system, purged at room temperature in an inert gas, and then heated in flowing hydrogen (H₂) or hydrogen sulfide/hydrogen to a temperature in the range 300-500° C. During the heating step, the nickel hypophosphite on the oxide support was converted to phase-pure Ni₂P.

Catalyst Characterization

For sufficiently high loadings, Ni₂P was identified on the support material using X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD patterns for Ni₂P on silica (SiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃) and amorphous silica-alumina (ASA) are shown in FIGS. 2, 3A, and 3B. Characteristic peaks for Ni₂P were identified by comparing the XRD patterns for the prepared catalysts with a reference pattern for Ni₂P from the powder diffraction file (card no. 089-2742). There was no evidence in the XRD patterns for the formation of impurity phases such as the more metal-rich Ni₁₂P₅ (card no. 22-1190). The preparation method could be used for a wide range of metal phosphide loadings. The XRD patterns shown in FIGS. 2, 3A, and 3B are for 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂, 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃, and 25 wt % Ni₂P/ASA. Lower Ni₂P loadings on the three oxide supports resulted in Ni₂P particle sizes below the detection limit (<˜5 nm) of X-ray diffraction. As used herein, Ni₂P/SiO₂ refers to Ni₂P on a silica support, Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ refers to Ni₂P on an alumina support, and Ni₂P/ASA refers to Ni₂P on amorphous silica-alumina support.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are medium- and high- resolution transmission electron microscopy images, respectively, of the 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor. The average Ni₂P particle size was determined to be 3.2±0.4 nm. The lattice fringe spacing (0.20 nm) indicated the presence of Ni₂P particles on the SiO₂ support. Referring to FIGS. 5A and 5B, the medium- and high- resolution transmission electron microscopy images of the 25 wt % Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor showed an average Ni₂P particle size of 3.9 ±0.6 nm. The lattice fringe spacing (0.19 nm) indicated the presence of Ni₂P particles on the Al₂O₃ support. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, the medium- and high- resolution transmission electron microscopy images of the 25 wt % Ni₂P/ASA catalyst prepared from a hypophosphite-based precursor showed an average Ni₂P particle size of 3.3±0.5 nm. The lattice fringe spacing (0.19 nm) indicated the presence of Ni₂P particles on the ASA support.

The BET surface areas and chemisorption capacities (CO, O₂) for the in situ prepared Ni₂P catalysts are given in Table 1 along with comparison data from ex situ prepared catalysts from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The in situ prepared Ni₂P catalysts were reduced within the hydrotreatment reactor. In contrast, the ex situ prepared Ni₂P catalysts were reduced in a reactor separate from the hydrotreatment reactor, then the reduced catalysts were loaded into the hydrotreatment reactor. The in situ prepared catalysts had high surface areas, but there were no clear trends in chemisorption capacities that would predict high catalytic activity.

TABLE 1 Surface Characterization Data for Ni₂P Catalysts. Average Average BET CO Precursor EDX Ni₂P Ni₂P Surface Chemisorption P/Ni Particle Crystallite particle Area Capacity Catalyst Ratio composition Size (nm) size (nm) (m²/g) (μmol/g) Hypophosphite In situ Ni₂P/SiO₂ 1.5 — — — 199 43 Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ 2.0 — — — 159 57 Ni₂P/ASA 2.0 — — — 132 81 Hypophosphite Ex situ Ni₂P/SiO₂ 1.5 Ni_(2.11)P_(1.00) 9 3.2 ± 0.4 202 51 Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ 2.0 Ni_(2.07)P_(1.00) <5 3.9 ± 0.6 115 46 Ni₂P/ASA 2.0 Ni_(2.16)P_(1.00) <5 3.3 ± 0.5 120 55 Phosphate Ex situ Ni₂P/SiO₂ 0.9 — 12 — 132 113 Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ 1.5 — 19 — 97 52 Ni₂P/ASA 2.2 — 13 — 153 19

For Ni₂P/SiO₂, the catalyst prepared ex situ from a phosphate-based precursor had higher chemisorption capacities than the in situ and ex situ catalysts prepared from the hypophosphite-based precursors. The opposite trend was observed for the alumina- and ASA-supported Ni₂P catalysts.

A comparison of the bulk precursor compositions for phosphate- (“phos”) and hypophosphite- (“hypo”) based Ni₂P catalysts supported on SiO₂ and Al₂O₃, as well as the surface compositions (determined by XPS) for the reduced Ni₂P/SiO₂ and Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts is shown below, in Tables 2 and 3.

TABLE 2 Compositions of phosphate-(“phos”) and hypophosphite-(“hypo”) based Ni₂P catalysts supported on SiO_(2.) P/Ni bulk precursor Catalyst composition Surface composition Ni₂P/SiO₂-phos 0.9 Ni_(2.0)P_(0.89) Ni₂P/SiO₂-hypo 1.5 Ni_(2.0)P_(6.2)

TABLE 3 Compositions for phosphate-(“phos”) and hypophosphite-(“hypo”) based Ni₂P catalysts supported on Al₂O_(3.) P/Ni bulk precursor Catalyst composition Surface composition Ni₂P/Al₂O₃-phos 1.5 Ni_(2.0)P_(8.0) Ni₂P/Al₂O₃-hypo 2.0 Ni_(2.0)P_(11.0)

Catalyst Activity

A schematic representation of the high pressure reactor studies of Example 1 is shown in FIG. 7.

Referring to FIG. 7, hydrotreating catalytic activity measurements (hydrodenitrogenation—HDN, hydrodesulfurization—HDS) were carried out using a fixed-bed, continuous flow reactor. Approximately 0.15-0.25 g of catalyst (16-20 mesh size) was diluted with quartz sand to a total volume of 5 mL and loaded into a reactor tube having a diameter of 1.1 cm and length of 40 cm. The HDN measurements were conducted using a mixed feed consisting of 1000 ppm carbazole and 3000 ppm benzothiophene in a 60 wt % decane/39.55 wt % p-xylene solvent mixture. The reactor feed also contained 500 ppm undecane as an internal gas chromatography (GC) standard. The reaction conditions were a total pressure of 3.0 MPa, a liquid feed rate of 5.4 mL/min and an H₂ feed rate of 50.0 mL/min. The internal reactor temperature was monitored with an axially mounted thermocouple in direct contact with the catalyst bed. The Ni₂P phosphide catalysts or their precursors were pretreated by heating from room temperature to 377-400° C. in 1 h in a 60 mL/min flow of H₂ (or 3 mol % H₂S/H₂) and held at this temperature for 2 h, then cooled to room temperature in continued H₂ flow. After pretreatment, with the catalyst samples at room temperature, the reactor was pressurized to 3.0 MPa with H₂. The catalyst bed was heated to 267° C. over 15 min in a 50 mL/min flow of H₂ and liquid feed injection was begun once the reactor reached the operating temperature. The reactor was allowed to stabilize under operating conditions for 3 h prior to sampling reactor effluent at 30 min intervals over 2.5 h. The catalyst temperature was raised 25° C., the reactor stabilized for 3 h, followed by sampling of the reactor effluent at 30 min intervals. This procedure was repeated until sampling at the maximum catalyst temperature (407° C.) was completed. The first effluent sample collected at each temperature was discarded; the four subsequent effluent samples were analyzed off-line using a gas chromatograph (Agilent 6890N) equipped with an HP-5 column and a flame ionization detector. HDN product identification was conducted by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and the gas chromatography (GC) was calibrated using serial diluted product standard solutions to allow product quantification of reactor effluent samples.

The carbazole HDN activities (on a mass catalyst basis) are plotted in FIGS. 8, 9A, and 9B for Ni₂P on the different supports. As used herein, the suffix “-hypo” refers to a Ni₂P catalyst prepared using hypophosphite-based precursors, and the suffix “-phos” refers to a Ni₂P catalyst prepared using phosphate-based precursors. As used herein, “in situ prep” refers to a catalyst that was reduced inside a hydrotreatment reactor, while “ex situ prep” refers to a catalyst that was prepared in a reactor separate from a hydrotreatment reactor. The catalysts precursors reduced in situ had similar or substantially higher activities than the Ni₂P catalysts prepared by conventional ex situ methods. In the case of the Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts (FIG. 8), the catalyst activities were similar; however, the catalyst prepared ex situ from a phosphate-based precursor (25 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂-phos.) had a significantly higher Ni₂P loading than the hypophosphite-based catalysts (15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂-hypo.). It is believed that a 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂-phos. catalyst would have a lower HDN activity and thus mirror the trends observed for the Ni₂P/Al₂O₃, and Ni₂P/ASA catalysts, for which the phosphate- and hypophosphite-based catalysts have the same Ni₂P loadings.

As is clear from the results shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B, in situ prepared Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/ASA catalysts from hypophosphite-based precursors substantially out-performed the ex situ prepared catalysts from the hypophosphite and phosphate-based precursors. When supported on Al-containing supports such as Al₂O₃, ASA or zeolites, Ni₂P catalysts prepared at high temperatures from phosphate-based precursors exhibited inferior catalytic properties compared to Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts because of the strong interaction and/or reaction of the impregnated phosphorus with the support to form AlPO₄. Hypophosphite-based methods have been described for the synthesis of Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts, but these ex situ methods require washing steps to remove inorganic salts (e.g., NaCl) because of the metal and hypophosphite salts utilized. In addition, this Example shows that in situ prepared Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/ASA catalysts were substantially more active than their ex situ prepared counterparts. As shown in FIG. 10, the Ni₂P/SiO₂, Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/ASA catalysts prepared by in situ reduction of hypophosphite-based precursors (H₂, 400° C.) were significantly more active for carbazole HDN than a commercial Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst (Shell 424, having 4 wt % NiO, 19.5 wt % MoO₃, and 8 wt % P₂O₅) at temperatures for which the conversion is high (350- 407° C.). The Ni₂P catalysts prepared in situ from hypophosphite-based precursors also exhibited high activity for the HDS of benzothiophene during experiments with the mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed (FIG. 11). At temperatures in the range 325-407° C., the benzothiophene HDN conversions were similar to those of the commercial Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst (Shell 424 catalyst).

An additional feature of the catalyst of Example 1 is that the catalyst precursors could be reduced in situ using a sulfidation pretreatment (3 mol % H₂S/H₂) to give highly active Ni₂P catalysts, as shown in FIG. 12A. The carbazole HDN activities of 15 wt % Ni₂P/SiO₂ prepared by in situ reduction of hypophosphite-based precursors in H₂ or H₂S/H₂ at 377° C. are shown in FIG. 12B. The Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst prepared using H₂S/H₂ was less active than the catalyst prepared in H₂, but exhibited higher activity than the commercial Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst (Shell 424) at 350° C. and higher. X-ray diffraction patterns (FIG. 12C) of the Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts after the catalytic testing in the mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed confirmed that the hypophosphite-based precursors were converted to phase pure Ni₂P during the in situ reductions in H₂ or H₂S/H₂ at 377° C.

FIG. 13A compares the carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity testing was conducted using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed. The physical characteristics the Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts of FIG. 13A are shown in FIG. 13B. The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst had smaller particles, but a lower CO chemisorption capacity than the phosphate-based Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst. The high HDN activity of hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalyst prepared in situ was associated with a high HDN turnover frequency

FIG. 14A compares the carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity testing was conducted using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed. The physical characteristics the Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts of FIG. 14A are shown in FIG. 14B. The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst had smaller particles, but a similar CO chemisorption capacity to the phosphate-based Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The high HDN activity of hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalyst prepared in situ was associated with a high HDN turnover frequency.

FIG. 15A compares the carbazole HDN activities for Ni₂P/ASA catalysts prepared from phosphate- and hypophosphite-based precursors. The HDN activity testing was conducted using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed. The physical characteristics the Ni₂P/ASA catalysts of FIG. 15A are shown in FIG. 15B. The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/ASA catalyst had smaller particles and a higher CO chemisorption capacity than the phosphate-based Ni₂P/ASA catalyst. The high HDN activity of hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/ASA catalyst prepared in situ is associated with a high active site density.

FIG. 16 compares the carbazole HDN turnover frequencies (T=325° C.) of Ni₂P on SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and ASA supports for catalysts prepared in situ and ex situ using hypophosphite-based precursors, as well as using phosphate-based precursors. The turnover frequencies were determined using CO chemisorption capacities. Also shown is the HDN turnover frequency for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst (4 wt % NiO, 19.5 wt % MoO₃, 8 wt % P₂O₅), for which the low temperature 0₂ chemisorption capacity was used to calculate the turnover frequency. The Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/SiO₂ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors had higher HDN turnover frequencies than the sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst, particularly the in situ prepared catalysts.

Example 1 demonstrates the preparation of metal phosphides (e.g., Ni₂P) supported on high surface area metal oxides (silica, alumina, amorphous silica-alumina) in a manner that is compatible with conditions employed in commercial hydrotreating units. Hypophosphite-based precursors could be reduced in situ in a reactor using either H₂ or H₂S/H₂ at 300-500° C. to give highly active Ni₂P catalysts as demonstrated by HDN and HDS activity measurements using a mixed carbazole/benzothiophene feed.

Example 2. Ni₂P on P₂O₅— or B₂O₃-Modified Supports

This example describes a method for preparing metal phosphides (e.g., Ni₂P) supported on high surface area P₂O₅— or B₂O₃-modified Al₂O₃ supports (P-Al₂O₃ and B—Al₂O₃, respectively) in a manner that is compatible with conditions employed in commercial hydrotreating units. The catalyst synthesis includes impregnation, drying and calcination of the P— or B-impregnated Al₂O₃ supports, followed by impregnation, drying and in situ reduction (i.e., reduction within the hydrotreatment reactor) of the Ni₂P catalyst precursor to yield highly active catalysts for the removal of S and N impurities from crude oil fractions.

An aqueous solution of H₃BO₃, H₃PO₄, and/or an ammonium phosphate salt such as NH₄H₂PO₄ and/or (NH₄)₂HPO₄, was impregnated onto the Al₂O₃ support until incipient wetness. The resulting P-Al₂O₃ and B-Al₂O₃ supports had loadings of 0-5 wt % P and 0-2 wt % B, respectively. A metal hydroxide, such as nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂), was dissolved in hypophosphorous acid (H₃PO₂, 50 wt % aqueous solution). Ni(NO₃)₂ or another Ni salt may or may not be added to the impregnation solution to adjust the P/Ni mole ratio. The resulting solution had a phosphorus-to-nickel mole ratio (P/Ni) of 1.5-2.0, the solution was maintained at an elevated temperature 70° C.) to avoid precipitation of solid material. The solution was impregnated onto the P-Al₂O₃ or B-Al₂O₃ support and dried at 70° C. The dried catalyst precursor was loaded into the reactor system, purged at room temperature in an inert gas, and then heated in flowing hydrogen (H₂) or hydrogen sulfide/hydrogen (H₂S/H₂) to a temperature in the range 300-500° C. During the heating step, the nickel hypophosphite on the oxide support was converted to phase-pure Ni₂P.

Referring to FIG. 17A, a schematic representation of the preparation steps for P— (or B—) modified Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ catalysts is provided. FIG. 17B shows X-ray diffraction patterns for hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different P-loadings on an Al₂O₃ support (0-5 wt %P). FIG. 17C shows X-ray diffraction patterns for phosphate-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different P-loadings on an Al₂O₃ support (0-5 wt %P).

FIG. 18A shows XRD patterns for hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different B-loadings on the Al₂O₃ support (0-2 wt % B). The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts (P/Ni=1.5) showed XRD evidence of the presence of Ni₂P for all P-loadings, while the phosphate-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts (P/Ni=1.5) only showed evidence of Ni₂P for catalysts with P-loadings≥2.0 wt % P. FIG. 18B shows XRD patterns for phosphate-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts having different B-loadings on the Al₂O₃ support (0-2 wt % B). The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts (P/Ni=1.5) showed XRD evidence of the presence of Ni₂P for all B-loadings, while the phosphate-based Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts (P/Ni=1.5) only showed evidence of Ni₂P for catalysts with B-loadings 0.4 wt % B.

FIG. 19A is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities vs. temperature for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ Ni₂P/1P-Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin. The Ni₂P/1P-Al₂O₃ catalyst had a higher HDS activity than the Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalysts over the indicated temperature range.

FIG. 19B is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities vs. temperature for Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalysts prepared from hypophosphite-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin. The Ni₂P/0.8B-Al₂O₃ catalyst had a higher HDS activity than the Ni₂P/Al₂O₃ and sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalysts over the indicated temperature range.

FIG. 20A is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities for Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts (T=300° C.) prepared from hypophosphite- and phosphate-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin. The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/P-Al₂O₃ catalysts having 1-3 wt % P loadings of the Al₂O₃ support had superior HDS activities compared to the sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst at 300° C.

FIG. 20B is a graph showing the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activities for Ni₂P/B-Al₂O₃ catalyst (T=300° C.) prepared from hypophosphite- and phosphate-based precursors. Also shown is the 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene HDS activity for a sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst. The reactor feed consisted of 1000 PPM 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin. The hypophosphite-based Ni₂P/B—Al₂O₃ catalysts having 0.2-2.0 wt % B loadings of the Al₂O₃ support had superior HDS activities compared to the sulfided Ni-Mo/Al₂O₃ catalyst at 300° C.

While illustrative embodiments have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 

1-28. (canceled)
 29. A hydrotreatment catalyst comprising nanoscale Ni₂P particles on a support, wherein the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are in the form of a plurality of Ni₂P crystallites on the support, and the plurality of crystallites has an average diameter of 3 nm to 15 nm; and wherein the support is selected from the group consisting of silica, alumina, and amorphous silica-alumina; the support optionally comprising a surface layer comprising P₂O₅, B₂O₃, or a combination thereof.
 30. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the hydrotreatment catalyst does not comprise an inorganic salt.
 31. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the hydrotreatment catalyst does not include impurities.
 32. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the impurities comprise Ni₁₂P₅.
 33. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the plurality of crystallites has a diameter that does not vary by more than 20% compared to the average diameter.
 34. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % of the hydrotreatment catalyst and wherein the nanoscale Ni₂P particles have a surface composition comprising a mole ratio of P/Ni of 1.0-6.0.
 35. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 34, wherein the nanoscale Ni₂P particles have a bulk portion below the surface composition, having a mole ratio of P/Ni that is less than that of the surface composition.
 36. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the surface layer of the support, when present, has a thickness of 5 nm, and wherein the catalyst has a BET surface area of from 75 m²/g to 250 m²/g.
 37. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, having a carbazole hydrodenitrogenation turnover frequency of from 0.0001/s to 0.0006/s at 350° C. over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when exposed to 1000 ppm carbazole and 3000 ppm benzothiophene in a 60 wt % decane and 39.55 wt % p-xylene solvent mixture at a rate of 5.4 mL/min, and a H₂ flow rate of 50.0 mL/min, at a temperature of about 267° C. to 407° C. and a pressure of 3.0 MPa.
 38. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein when the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % of the hydrotreatment catalyst, the hydrotreatment catalyst is capable of providing a carbazole hydrodenitrogenation conversion of 1% to 97% at 350° C. over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when exposed to 1000 ppm carbazole and 3000 ppm benzothiophene in a 60 wt % decane and 39.55 wt % p-xylene solvent mixture at a rate of 5.4 mL/min, and a H₂ flow rate of 50.0 mL/min, at a temperature of about 267° C. to 407° C. and a pressure of 3.0 MPa.
 39. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein when the nanoscale Ni₂P particles are 5 wt % to 25 wt % of the hydrotreatment catalyst, the hydrotreatment catalyst is capable of providing a 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene hydrodesulfurization conversion of 1% to 65% at 300° C. over a time period of 24 hours to 120 hours, when exposed to 1000 ppm of 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene in decalin, and a H₂ flow rate of 50.0 mL/min, at a temperature of about 257° C. to 327° C. at a pressure of 3.0 MPa.
 40. The hydrotreatment catalyst of claim 29, wherein the hydrotreatment catalyst provides higher proportions of cyclohexylbenzene when exposed to carbazole and benzothiophene, compared to a nickel-molybdenum catalyst on alumina.
 41. A method of hydrotreating a petroleum feedstock, comprising hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock in a reactor using a hydrotreatment catalyst according to claim
 29. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the hydrotreatment catalyst is prepared in situ in the reactor prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock, by: (a) providing an impregnation solution comprising nickel hydroxide in hypophosphorous acid; (b) impregnating the support with the impregnation solution; (c) drying the impregnation solution to provide Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ on the support; and (d) reducing the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ on the support in a hydrogen environment, a sulfiding environment or an inert gas environment, and heating at a temperature below a temperature limit of the reactor to provide the hydrotreatment catalyst.
 43. The method of claim 42, wherein reducing the Ni(H₂PO₂)₂ comprises heating to a temperature of 400° C. or less in the reactor.
 44. The method of claim 41, wherein the method does not include a step of washing the hydrotreatment catalyst prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock.
 45. The method of claim 41, wherein the hydrotreatment catalyst is prepared ex situ and then placed in the reactor prior to hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock.
 46. The method of claim 41, wherein hydrotreating the petroleum feedstock comprises a reaction catalyzed by the hydrotreatment catalyst that is selected from the group consisting of hydrodenitrogenation; hydrodesulfurization; and hydrogenation; and a combination thereof.
 47. The method of claim 41, wherein the petroleum feedstock is a petroleum distillate. 